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The Jewish communities Spain and North
Africa blossomed as the Babylonian centre declined.
Flourishing Spanish Jewish communities developed where
voluminous legal discussions of the Talmud began to
be edited and codified.The influence of Babylonian Jewry
had been very strong on the Jewish communities in Europe:
the eastern Diaspora, including Eqypt, tended to be
under the influence of what remained of the Eretz Israel
centre. This fact is particularly evident in the various
prayer rites adopted.
On the eve of the expulsion of the Jews
& Muslims from Spain in 1492, Spain was home to
the largest Jewish community in the Christian world,
and a world which had seen the flowering of a golden
age of Jewish culture and birthplace to such towering
figures in Judaism as Maimonides, the greatest Jewish
philosopher of the Middle Ages. Expulsion from Spain,
one of the most crucial moments in Jewish history, led
to the development of the great Sephardic diaspora concentrated
in North Africa and the Ottoman Empire. Since the proclamation
of the Republic in 1931, the Jewish community of Spain
is growing and with it a new interest in the cultural
heritage of Spanish Jewry. Latin America is also home
to important communities of Spanish-speaking Jewish
communities with distinct and diverse cultures.
In the fifth and sixth centuries in Spain
the Germanic Visigoth rulers had persecuted the Spanish
Jews, but under Muslim rule, (in some areas of Spain
for nearly 800 years from about 715 until 1492) Spanish
Jews reached positions of importance in government,
in a period known as the Golden Age. Spanish Jews were
active in the free professions, particularly medicine,
and the study of astronomy and philosophy were favoured.
Hebrew, poetry of all kinds flowered in an age that
produced Ibn Gabirol, Samuel Ha- Nagid and Judah HaLevi.
Due to the clash of secular culture with Spanish Judaism,
the greatest scholar of the 12th century - Maimonedes
- wrote his major philosophical work, The guide of the
Perplexed, in Arabic. Maimonedes was both the personal
doctor and advisor to the Spanish Muslim ruler in the
capital city which was Cordoba.Most of his monumental
works were written in Hebrew. The Golden Age in Spain
also saw the development of Jewish mysticism, or Kaballah
(the central work of which is the Zohar), that grew
to be so important in Jewish life.
During the first stages of the Christian
reconquest of Spain, early in the eleventh century,
the position of the Jews did not deteriorate drastically.
But the Christian Church and the Vatican saw an anomaly
in the continued existence of Jews of Spain in a now
somewhat unified Christian state, and made every effort
to convince the Catholic kings to crack down and convert
them. This pressure along with social unrest due of
the majority of the lower classes over the lack of improvement
in property rights and living standards created fertile
ground for extremist preaching. This led to various
pomgrams culminating in the persecutions of 1391. Until
the conquest of the Muslim Spain though the Spanish
kings needed the help and financing of the Sephardic
jews. This ended with the capitulation of the Muslims
Spanish or Moors in January of 1492. Some six months
later, just before Columbus sailed the ocean blue the
one religion proclamation became law and Jews in Spain
had to either accept the Christian faith or leave the
country. For several hundred years thereafter no Jew
lived openly in Spain, and it was only in 1967 that
a synagogue opened with official recognition.
Following the Expulsion from Spain the
refugees spread out over the whole Jewish world - including
the Land of Israel, North Africa, Italy, Sicily, Holland
and Turkey -establishing their own congregations. The
name Sephardi, which describes many diverse communities,
is a derivation of the Hebrew name for Spain. Some conversos,
Jews who had officially embraced Christianity while
secretly remaining true to their own faith, ultimately
escaped from Spain, sometimes at great risk. Others
remained - and in many Spanish families to this day,
vestiges of Jewish observance can be found.
The Talmud consists of two specific collections
of texts - the Mishnah and the Gemara.
As the Mishnah is written in such precise
and terse verse, the rabbis needed to discuss and analyse
it. The Gemara is the collection of the rabbinic discussions
about the Mishnah and other teachings of the Tannaim
(scholars from 400 BCE - 200 CE), which took place for
three hundred years after the Mishnah was written down
(200-500 CE).
The Gemara is a commentary on the Mishnah,
and the Babylonian and Jerusalem Talmuds contain two
different commentaries on the Mishnah, each originating
from a certain place (Babylon and Israel, not actually
Jerusalem). Sometimes, the Gemara alone is called the
Talmud, although strictly speaking this is not true
as the Talmud also contains the Mishnah.
Talmud literally means 'study'. The Talmud
embodies the labours, opinions, and teachings of the
ancient Jewish scholars in expounding and developing
the religious and civil laws of the Bible during a period
of some eight centuries (from 300 BCE to 500 CE). There
are two different versions of the Talmud - the Talmud
Bavli (lit. Babylonian Talmud), and the Talmud Yerushalmi
(lit. Jerusalem Talmud). Each of these are very long
- the Babylonian Talmud is usually printed as twenty
large volumes and the much smaller Jerusalem Talmud
- as three large volumes. The two versions of the Talmud
contain the same Mishnah (i.e. there is one Mishnah,
common to both) but different Gemara. The Talmud Bavli
(Babylonian Talmud) is the authoritative collection,
and is usually what people refer to when they mention
the Talmud. Not every Masechet (Tractate) of the Mishnah
has a corresponding Gemara in both, or even either version
of the Talmud. In general, the Talmud Bavli doesn't
contain a Gemara on Seder Zeraim (Seeds) as this is
about agriculture in the Land of Israel which was not
discussed in detail in Babylon. Seder Teharot (Purity)
also has no extensive Gemara as laws concerning purity
were so important in everyday life that it didn't need
to be written down.
Although the Talmud, strictly speaking,
consists simply of the Mishnah and Gemara, if you look
at a standard edition of the Talmud there are a lot
of other commentaries and discussions printed in the
book. Again, this is similar to some editions of a play
by Shakespeare that may be printed with all sorts of
explanations in the margins. The standard Vilna Edition
of the Talmud is a little over a hundred years old.
If the Torah is the foundation of Jewish
life, then the Talmud is the central pillar of Jewish
study and thought.
The Talmud is ordered in the same way
as the Mishnah, which is not surprising as it consists
of the Mishnah and very extensive commentary on the
Mishnah (the Gemara). Since the Mishnah deals mainly
with matters of Halachah (Jewish Law), much of the Talmud
is about exploring Halachic issues. However this is
by no means exclusively what the Talmud is about.
The Talmud is a storehouse for information
connected with the life, customs, beliefs, and superstitions
of the Jews. It deals with issues as diverse as medicine,
astronomy, commerce, agriculture, magic, botany, and
zoology. The Talmud also gathers sayings and stories
of the rabbis that are not directly connected to the
Mishnah.
Because the main purpose of the Talmud
is not to decide law but to decide what the truth is,
it contains much material that doesn't have any obvious
practical application.
The contents of the various Masechtot
(Tractates) of the Talmud is as follows. As can be seen
from merely a glimpse at the range of major topics,
the Talmud covers an enormous scope of material.
Berachot (Blessings) is about various
prayers and blessings.
Pe'ah (Corner, corner of the field) is
about the laws of gifts to the poor, and charity.
Demai (Doubtful, doubtfully tithed) is
about what to do with produce about which there is a
doubt regarding if it is to be set aside for the poor.
Kilayim (Mixtures) is about laws regarding
cross-breeding.
Shevi'it (Seventh, the Sabbatical Year)
is about the laws of the Sabbatical Year, when fields
must lie fallow and loans are cancelled.
Terumot (Contributions) is about the contributions
to the Priests.
Ma'aserot (Tithes) is about contributions
that were made to the Priestly assistants.
Ma'aser Sheni (Second Tithes) is about
contributions that were made to the Priestly assistants,
and assorted poor people.
Challah (Dough) is about the laws of separating
a portion of dough before making bread to give to the
Priests.
Orlah (Uncircumcised, "uncircumcised
fruit") is about the prohibition against using
fruit within three years of a tree being planted.
Bikkurim (First fruits) is about first-fruit
offerings at the Temple.
Shabbat contains most of the laws governing
Shabbat. In the Babylonian Talmud, it also contains
a discussion of the laws of Chanukah.
Eruvin (Mergings) is about the boundaries
within which one may walk and carry ariticles on Shabbat.
Pesachim (Paschal lambs, "Passover")
is about the laws of Passover.
Shekalim (Shekels) is based around a discussion
of the taxation levied for the running of the Temple
service.
Yoma (The Day, "The Day of Atonement")
deals mainly with the order of service in the Temple
on Yom Kippur. It also deals with the Yom Kippur fast
and prayer service.
Sukkah (Booth) is about building a Sukkah,
and the Four Species used on Succot in prayer.
Betzah (Egg) is about the laws that apply
to all festivals. It is named after the first word in
the Tractate.
Rosh HaShanah is about the laws of fixing
the date of the New Year, and of the calendar in general.
It also deals with the shofar, and prayer service on
Rosh HaShanah.
Ta'anit (Fast) deals with public fast
days.
Megillah (Scroll) contains the laws for
reading the Megillat Esther (the Scroll of Esther) and
of Purim in general. Incidentally it deals with the
laws of both reading and writing the Torah and other
scrolls, the laws of prayer, and laws about synagogues.
Moed Katan (Minor Festival) discusses
the laws of working on Chol HaMoed (the intermediate
days of Pesach and Succot)
Chagigah (Festival Offering) deals with
pilgrimages to the Temple.
Yevamot (Sisters-in-Law) deals with the
obligation to marry a widow of one's childless brother
(levirate marriage), and forbidden sexual relations.
It also deals with the laws of prohibited marriages
and with conversion.
Ketuvot (Marriage Deeds) deals the laws
of marriage deeds, rape, and seduction.
Nedarim (Vows) deals with laws containing
vows.
Nazir (Nazarite) contains the laws of
the Nazarite, one who temporarily abstains from drinking
wine and cutting one's hair.
Sotah (A Woman suspected of Adultery by
her Husband) is about the laws concerning a woman suspected
of adultery.It is also about the Priestly Blessing and
the laws of warfare.
Gittin (Bills of Divorce) deals with the
arrangements for bills of divorce.
Kiddushin (Betrothals) deals with the
ways in which people may be betrothed. It also deals
incidentally with the commandments binding on men and
women, and those only binding upon men.
Bava Kamma (The First Gate) is about types
of legal damage.
Bava Metzia (The Middle Gate) is about
disputes over financial matters and property.
Bava Batra (The Last Gate) is about laws
of partnership and inheritance.
Sanhedrin contains the laws of capital
punishment, and judicial procedure in general. It also
contains discussion of principles of faith and the afterlife.
Makkot (Lashes) clarifies the laws of
corporal punishment and banishment.
Shevuot (Oaths) is about the various oaths
administered in court, and by the Rabbis.
Eduyyot (Testimonies) is a collection
of sayings on a wide variety of subjects.
Avodah Zarah (Idolatry) deals with idolatry
and the restrictions regarding contact with non-Jews.
Avot (Fathers) is a collection of ethical
sayings by the Rabbis.
Horayot (Decisions, rulings) deals with
cases where the courts, Priests, or King made an error,
and what they must do as penitence in such cases.
Zehavim (Animal Sacrifices) deals with
animal sacrifices. It also contains an exhaustive discussion
of the methods used to establish Jewish law.
Menachot (Meal Offerings) is about meal
offerings. It also discusses the laws of Tefillin (phylacteries)
and Tzitzit (ritual fringes).
Chullin (Ordinary, unhallowed) deals with
the laws of Kashrut.
Bekhorot (Firstlings) is about laws concerning
first-born animals and humans.
Arakhin (Valuations) is about the laws
of dedicating things to be used for the Temple.
Temurah (Substitution) is about laws governing
the substitution of one sacrifice for another.
Keritot (Excisions)is about sins which
incur the punishment of excision (a special kind of
Divine punishment)
Me'ilah (Sacrilege) is about the laws
concerning the unlawful use of objects that have been
consecrated in the Temple.
Tamid (Daily, 'daily sacrifices') contains
the permanent laws of the Temple, and the arrangements
for the daily service in the Temple.
Middot (Measurements) contains the plan
of the Temple, with measurements.
Kinnim (Birds' nests, "pairs of sacrificial
birds") deals with the sacrifice of birds.
Kelim (Vessels) is about the various forms
of impurity of utensils.
Ohalot (Tents) discusses the ritual impurity
of a tent containing a dead body.
Nega'im (Leprosy) contains the laws regarding
leprosy.
Parah (Heifer) is about the laws of the
Red Heifer, which was used to purify those made "impure"
by a dead body.
Teharot (Purifications) contains general
laws and principles of ritual impurity.
Mikvaot (Ritual Baths) contains the laws
of ritual baths, including how they are to be constructed.
Niddah (Menstruating woman) deals with
the ritual impurity of menstruating women, women who
have bleeding not connected to their regular periods,
and laws of ritual purity regarding a woman who has
given birth.
Makhshirin (Preparations, predispositions)
is about how foods can be made ritually impure by contact
with certain liquids.
Zavim (Those suffering from secretions)
deals with the laws of ritual impurity of those suffering
from sexual diseases.
Tevul Yom (Immersed during the day) contains
laws about at what time in the day one becomes ritually
pure after immersing in a ritual bath.
Yadayim (Hands) contains laws about washing
hands.
Uktzin (Stems, stalks) contains a discussion
of the laws governing the susceptibility of fruit to
ritual impurity.
The Talmud Bavli (Babylonian Talmud) is
a the collection of sayings and teachings of the Amoraim,
in Babylon. The Amoraim is the name given to the generation
of scholars responsible for the Gemara; the Amoraim
lived between 200-500 CE. Most of the sayings of the
Amoraim were needed to clarify the Mishnah. The assorted
teachings of the Babylonian Talmud were compiled and
written down in a process started by Rav Ashi and Rav
Ina, in around 500 CE.
The Talmud Yerushalmi (Jerusalem Talmud)
is a similar collection of sayings and teachings, but
of the scholars in Palestine. In effect, two separate
communities of the time developed different intellectual
traditions and explained the Mishnah in different ways.
The Jerusalem Talmud was written down approximately
100 years earlier than the Babylonian Talmud, in 400
CE.
Each Talmud is thus the recorded dialogue
of generations of scholars of a certain place, edited
together at a certain time to form a more complete discussion.
Like the Mishnah, the entire Talmud is
believed to be Divinely inspired by some Jews. Again,
as with the Mishnah, the same disagreements about the
status of the entire Talmud exists.
The Talmud is a compendium of some of
the main discussions concerning a Jewish world view.
Although it is used as the key source material for establishing
Halachah (Jewish Law), it is also much more than that.
The Talmud, through its breadth and depth of material,
links the key text of the Torah to the world.
It is important to know that the two Talmuds
are not on an equal footing. The Babylonian Talmud is
seen as authoritative. There are three main reasons
for this. First of all the Babylonian Talmud was completed
later, and so it is addresses issues raised in the Jerusalem
Talmud. Secondly the Babylonian Talmud is far more extensive
than the Jerusalem Talmud, and this detail lends the
work more weight. Lastly the Babylonian Talmud has a
sharper and intellectually deeper approach. The difference
in standing of the two Talmuds is so great that for
most purposes, the Jerusalem Talmud is neglected.
The Talmud itself stresses that it is
important to learn Jewish thought for its own sake,
and this is borne out by the place of the Talmud in
Jewish life. For hundreds of years, the Talmud has been
the main source of material for Jewish learning. At
age fifteen, many Jews start learning the Talmud, and
continue this study for the rest of their lives. In
Jewish places of learning throughout the world, the
Babylonian Talmud is the text most commonly studied.
It is because study of Talmud is not seen as merely
a means to some end that minority opinions and entire
arguments are recorded and learnt in the Talmud.
There is a custom to learn a page of Talmud
(which is really a double page, or folio) each day.
Called the Daf Yomi (Daily Page) system, hundreds of
thousands of people around the world learn the same
page of Talmud each day, completing the entire (Babylonian)
Talmud in seven years. Some passages from the Talmud
are used in prayer.
The Halachah (Jewish Law) is developed
by using the Talmud as the starting text. Decisions
on what to do in various situations are made by first
examining the Talmud. Here, the later an opinion (which
is known by who said it) the greater weight is given
to it.
The Talmud is mostly in Aramaic, but some
Hebrew is used too. Throughout the Talmud, there are
words and expressions borrowed from one language by
the other.
Aramaic began as the language of the Aramean
tribes but became the common tongue for many people
of the Middle East after 100 CE.
The Aramaic of the Babylonian Talmud is
Eastern Aramaic, which was spoken by the Jews of Babylon
at the time. The Aramaic of the Jerusalem Talmud is
Western Aramaic, which was spoken by the Jews of Palestine.
The languages are similar to each other. Aramaic is
also quite similar to Hebrew, and share common roots
for many words.
The Talmud can be a very difficult work
to study. The Talmud appears to have no internal order,
and a strange logic all of its own. In parts, it is
very complicated, and even experienced scholars have
difficulty with it. On the other hand, some parts of
the Talmud are more accessible, and yield entry into
a Jewish way of thinking.
It is obviously very expensive to buy
an enormous twenty volume Babylonian Talmud or even
a three volume Jerusalem Talmud. A standard (Vilna)
edition of the Talmud Bavli (Babylonian Talmud) in Aramaic
(and Hebrew) today would cost upwards of $750. An edition
is available with much smaller print that costs around
$300, but is less comfortable to use. Luckily, almost
all Jewish libraries contain a Talmud.
There are translations of the Talmud currently
available. The best editions include the Soncino and
the ArtScroll. Check before buying to see if the English
translation is something that you feel comfortable with,
as they can be difficult in places.
Steinsaltz is currently translating the
Talmud into English. The English translation is actually
based on his translation into Hebrew (from old Hebrew
and Aramaic). As each Tractate is completed, it is published.
The Steinsaltz Talmud contains a literal translation
as well as a free translation. The free translation
is very accessible. Steinsaltz also provides a very
thorough reading of the text, and this level of accuracy
makes the Steinsaltz Talmud extremely dependable, which
is important when each word is treated as vital and
meaningful. The Steinsaltz Talmud is a wonderful way
to learn Talmud for those who aren't comfortable in
Hebrew and Aramaic. The Steinsaltz translation of the
Talmud will fill over a hundred volumes, and each volume
costs over twenty pounds.
No translation of the Talmud contains
all of the extensive commentaries that are printed with
the Talmud in the standard editions. The Steinsaltz
translation does reproduce the most important commentary
- that of Rashi - but is translated into simple Hebrew,
not English.
Talmudic study is traditionally conducted
in Chevruta (friendly learning pairs). Chevruta learning
is done aloud, and is thought to aid understanding.
There are numerous classes in synagogues
and other places based around the Talmud. Often called
simply 'Gemara Shiur' (Gemara Lesson) these could be
on any part of the Talmud. There are also numerous internet
based classes, and even services that can link people
to study Talmud together on-line.
A
Summary of Sephardic Jewish history in Spain:
Sefarad,
Jewish Spain and the first Beis Ha’Mikdash
For
some 1500 years Sefarad, was home to one of the Sephardim
world’s largest Jewish communities. Although some
Jews came during the Antiquity, thousands of Jews fled
Palestine to Sefarad after the destruction of the first
Beis Ha’Mikdash in Jerusalem. From that point
on, Jews including Maimónides... lived in Spain
until the Expulsion of 1492. From this period we find
medieval synagogues, the labyrinthine Juderias or old
Jewish quarters, Roman and Moorish architecture, Ladino
and Inquisition sights... all of which evoke a rich
history worth revisiting
Moorish Medieval Spain 8th – 15th Centuries: Moments
of Splendor and Sorrow
This period in the Muslim Al Andaluz was generally positive
as Sephardic Jews reached high levels of commercial,
administrative and academic prominence with leaders
like Maimónides... Versed in Latin, Greek and
Hebrew, Spanish, Catalan or Arabic - depending where
they lived -, Jews worked as teachers, merchants, financiers,
doctors and ambassadors Nevertheless, despite this prosperous
situation, Jews suffered some ill treatment especially
as the Catholicism expanded south for a number of reasons.
Expulsion
or Conversion of Spanish Jews in 1492
The
Catholic Kings, Expulsion in 1492 and the Holy Office
of the Inquisition In 1492 after the Moorish surrender,
the Catholic Kings, Ferdinand and Isabella, ordered
the expulsion all Jews and Moors who wouldn't’t
convert, thus ending the largest and most distinguished
Jewish settlement in Europe.
The
Vatican’s Holy Office of the Inquisition persecuted
many supposed heretics including many "Converso"
families holding public "autos-da-fe" until
the 18th century with various sociological effects that
we will examine in during this guided trip. Representing
some over 55% of the Diaspora, some Sephardic Jews still
speak their medieval language, Ladino, which we can
study while in transit.
To
experience & learn more don't miss this opportunity
...
You
Deserve it. RESERVE NOW
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Seder Zeraim (The Order
'Seeds')
